UNDERTSANDING HUMAN ACTIONS

Parsons theorized and hoped to give an understanding to social science with principles just the same way as the physical sciences. His work was actually synthesized from the following theorists; the conception of the social system and the bases of its integration by Emile Durkheim, comparative analysis of social structure and the analysis of the border line between social system and culture by Max Weber and articulation between social systems and personality by Freud (parsons 1937). 

Parsons was interested in coming up with a general theory of social action that transcended disciplinary boundaries that is sociology, psychology and anthropology. His goal was to take elements from previous theories and combine them into a single abstract theory that explains the general process in the social world. 

Parsons tries to understand society by first looking at the basic level of the society that is the action. He begins his work by looking at voluntaristic actions of individuals based on structural aspects of the society to create social order. Action theory composes of theories that focus on the human action rather than concentrating on the structure. According to action theorists, action theory can be studied by looking at those that centre on meaning and interpretation and those that concerned themselves with the nature of human action.

According to Weber, simple behaviour or any action can be distinguished from social action by looking at the subjective orientation of the actor. A social action refers to an act which in its execution takes into account, reactions of other individuals as informed by social institutions that is the decisions of an actor in reference to the situation the actor finds himself in. According to Weber the process of doing something (action) becomes social `if the acting individual takes account of the behaviour of others and is thereby oriented in its course’. Thus an action is an activity which is related in some manner to principles of relationship/inter-relationship to things outside the organism. The action is connected to the organism and with other persons’ social situations and culture. 

Max Weber from whom parsons synthesises his theories of social structure, looks at both the above concepts of action theory and develops a typology of social action based on the following contexts; ‘In terms of rational orientation to a system of discrete individual ends, in terms of rational orientation to an absolute value, in terms of affectual orientation especially emotionally determined by affects and states of feeling of the actor or traditionally oriented through the habituation of a long practice’ (Weber 1978).

An action may be motivated by a number of relatively independent ends, without any having the actors’ absolute biasness but based on rationality. An action is rationally oriented to a system of discrete individual ends when the ends, the means and the secondary results are all rationally taken into account and weighed. This involves a rational consideration of alternatives of the end to other prospective results, which may be realized through employing a particular set of means and the relative importance of different possible end. Rationality involves weighing the relative importance by evaluating whether undesirable consequences would outweigh the benefits to be derived from the projected course of action. An example of a rational orientation would be the action by the prime minister in the year 2010 to steer efforts towards the conservation of the Mau forest. Regardless of the political cost likely to be incurred by taking such action and aware of the possible options, the minister put into practice his convictions of what needed to be done so as save the forest. The environmental benefit outweighed the political cost. Another example would be the move by president Kibaki and the prime minister to sign the accord and avert more deaths during the post election violence. The decisions agreed were taken despite the cost to the both parties.

An action oriented towards absolute value, the sole important consideration to the actor is the realization of the value. Rational consideration for example of efficiency will be employed in the choice of the means, without rational weighing of the end against possible ends or counting the cost in meeting possible results other than the absolute end. It is a clearly self-conscious formulation of the ultimate values governing the action and planning the course of action based on this value. The more the value to which action is oriented is elevated to the status of absolute value, the more irrational the action becomes. For example the action to form the G7 political alliance in the country can be associated with a direct impulse action to revenge. The end is not negotiable and there is not any rational evaluations of options to the end. 

Affectual orientation to action is not guided by rational. It is much the same as action oriented to absolute value with affect guiding the outcome or ends and means. For example the decision to form the G7 political alliance in the country can be attributed to dissatisfaction among some members of Orange Democratic movement and thus the affects maybe employed to explain the course of their action. 

Traditional orientation is often an automatic reaction to habitual stimuli which guide behaviour in a course which has been repeatedly followed. The great bulk of all everyday life action follows habits. Decisions by parents to have their children go through formal education system and get good jobs as opposed to exploring other careers such as sports may be influenced by habits and traditions as opposed to rational and children physiological and psychological capabilities.  

The focus of Weberian action theory is on the degree of rationality in human behaviour based on absolute rationality and individual ends rationality. Other theories such as exchange theory and rational choice theory take up Weber’s action theory focus of rationality and argue that action is best understood in terms of people making rational choices in which they maximize their utilities.