The times are a testimony to Jesus Christ birth

I am an amateur historian and there is one thing which has reigned on my mind for sometime now, Historians have long used BC/AD in references to times, with an assumption that Christ was born around 7 to 4 BC. Therefore the birth of Christ forms the zero year which separates BC and AD. Some historians and antagonists over time felt that using BC/AD to reference to time gives Jesus Christ a superior status (which He rightly possess). This antagonism resulted into a creation of CE/BCE parallel system i.e Common Era and Before Common Era to reference to time. The Common Era referred to here is basically the Christian or vulgar era. Basically the truth renamed. Further the actual mark or the zero year is a mirage as far as this group of antagonists historians and scientists is concerned, since they do not want to acknowledge the year as denoting to the birth of Jesus Christ. So atheists and other groups in denial of Christ's birth, should start devising a different system of referencing to time rather than BCE/CE. And i can assure you i have been checking around and not even the great Greeks or even Dionysius Exiguus himself or Johannes Kepler provides an alternative.... reference to CE/BCE as common or christian or vulgar era does not take the facts on the birth of Jesus Christ away it only provides a blind eye to the truth, ............................... 
Christ was born, lived amongst us, died for our sins, is risen and we are waiting for His second coming and the times are a testimony to this.

The world been socially squeezed and squeezed to only accommodate a few category or cluster of people

I am not a strong lover of films but something evident in many of the movies today has been striking to me. There has been increasing number of movies portraying an outbreak of a disease which transforms people into zombies which attack fellow men. The disease spreads very fast and to survive, the un-infected people begin killing the infected ones. Think of the THE LAST SHIP movie, with all her technology and sophistication!!!!
As much as this is a reflection of capitalism, i have wondered, what is the probability of this actually occurring? The black death or plaque outbreak during the 1500 especially in Asia, and Europe which killed approximate 75 to 200 million people resulting in a collapse of an entire social system - feudalism - is a vivid reminder to me that, it may not just be fiction after all. The Film industry is a reflection of the society and her thoughts. Besides with the potential of weaponizing diseases and gems, and the will and greed especially with capitalization of all spheres of life, the chances of such a fiction materializing is even greater. The percentage of the un-infected people keeps getting smaller, and this makes them more fearful and gives the incentives to them to annihilate the entire world population - the zombies-
I really do not know the world we live any more.....

Development for Africa will not be given by global powers, every African son and daughter everywhere needs to cry for her mother continent

Once, the philanthropist David Rockefeller said, all the world needs is the right major crisis and it will accept the New World Order. Without diverging into the New World Order discussion, obviously as it maybe, let me wonder; what is this major crisis that Africa underwent in order to accept the world order? That is a discussion for another day. However it is only fair to point out that as indicated by David Olusoga, the perceptions of Africa as inferior, backward and barbaric are traceable to crusaders of slavery and colonialism. And now today, Africa is been treated with a magic pill which says, be progress; forward thinking; focus on global trade and entrepreneurship, foreign direct investment, constitutionalism, democracy!! ...... Are Africans sure that the barbaric view of the West towards Africa has been shed off as they take this pill??? Of course your guess is as good as mine. The West's view of Africa was excellently captured by their media, (the mirror and reflection of the society) during President Obama's (An African son who, once he got to the big city decided to look the other side) visit to Kenya in 2015 as excellently captioned by CNN as ' a visit to the hotbed of terror'. If you think i am the 'mad dog of Libya', read for yourself: http://edition.cnn.com/2015/07/22/politics/obama-kenya-visit-al-shabaab-threat/

We have accepted our circumstances and we now live under the table as our masters eat and every time pieces fall we are overjoyed? In the Holy Bible, God created man blessed them and said to them, "Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground". I imagine a literal translation of this portion of the script.....If you notice, dominance relates to man and as you guessed not to a specific man. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights underscores the inherent dignity and inalienable human rights as founded under peaces, justice and freedom. Every time international trade and UN conferences convene in Africa, Africa mouth wateringly awaits for crumbs falling from the conference 'festivities tables', with media talks such as; how tourism will be the main benefactor and local entrepreneurs will land deals which will see their ideas bought by MNCs. While the WTO talks take place in conference halls in Nairobi, we are preparing the beds for the participants to  sleep on and we are overjoyed they have paid dollars!!! We seem to have clearly understood the world order and are religiously dancing the tune strictly on our lane. 

The major crisis for Africa are numerous and the exercise of Rockefeller philosophy (though the context and timing may have been different, but the spirit of Rockefeller and his forefathers seems to have sung in unison) seems to have worked magically better in Africa than any other continent. Latin America seems to be coming out of their major crisis of CIA dominance and political instability, Asia seems to be coming out of the ashes with adoption of capitalistic strategies and seems as posing a major threat to the existing world order. So whats wrong with Africa?

I am spiritedly convinced that our forefathers turn in their graves every time they see our marriage with and subjugation to the West, through such crude strategies and objects such as the WTO and brain drain. Though they severely disagreed in their day, our forefathers such as Booker T Washington fore imagined education and capacity development of the African races as the key to liberation and emancipation. This is despite W.E.B Du bios's and a majority of you's distaste and disagreement with the 'Atlanta compromise'. Don't we have schooled African scholars? On the extreme end, W.E.B Du bios's love for the 14th amendment, opposition to white supremacy and demand for women rights still seems a mirage for a majority of African nations, 50+ years after his death. Wow what a disservice to their toil and sacrifice. Well before i seem as diverging out of the point, let me point that globalization as was popularly advocated by the West as a magic pillar for healing all economic, social, political and all other westernrily imagined diseases, opens the eyes to the African struggle all over the world. Although the circumstances may vary a bit, the spirit remains the same. The global village idea has forged a marriage of global economic exploitation for all inferior races all over the world. Discrimination of Africans by global powers  is not only concentrated in certain quotas but is popularly exercised world over with priestly devotion of institutions such as the Bretton wood institutions. Discrimination of blacks and any other race for that matter any where should pain every black and such other race everywhere. Therefore the cries of all Africans are in unison all round the world. I am convinced our ancestors count less the worthiness of their sacrifices and suffering when from their graves, they see our political and economic exploitation till this day. In my strongly spirited view, exploitation of an African nation should pain an African in America, Latin America, Europe and every where, including our brother president Barrack Hussein Obama. Well, am sure the die hard followers will have better explanation of Obama's seemingly undisturbed view Africa exploitation. Kindly quantify for me (And mark you, solar power and lighting Africa opens the door for massive investments of MNCs and guarantee of the status quo).

Is the African race more freer, independent, sovereign today than it was 100 years ago, despite the numerous strategies, policies and proclamations made by global powers. The Sub Sahara debt remains the highest round the world. Poverty, drought due to climate change, illiteracy etc continue to ravage the region. UNICEF estimates over 5 million children and vulnerable adults have lost their life due to debt crunch in Sub Sahara Africa since 1980s. Every one who has been keen on recent World Bank well thought advice to Kenya, can recall that the Bank declared that Kenya's borrowing is sustainable earlier in the year 2016. After a second thought and soul searching, the Bank came back and declared that Kenya infrastructural borrowing from China is dangerous for the economy. It is popularly declared that this decade is Africa time  in economic circles. This gets my mind worried..... Africa's time for what...remember Africa is likely to be the only remaining virgin land for primitive accumulation, compared to other regions....new  and new oil fields continue to be discovered in Africa..Do Bretton woods institutions and their masters mean it's now time to turn attention and pick from where they left in massive, open and entitlement exploitation of Africa? ... The struggle between France and US (Africom) over the dominance of North Africa region gets you wondering, is it for the regions safety or strategic positioning due to the oil fields and water aquifers. For sure, the new form of primitive accumulation will not be as direct as it was in colonial period, but what difference will it make!!!Africa is under exploitation? If the seemingly beneficial new paradigm policies have not worked in the past 100 years, what will make what is been proclaimed today by West work in the next 100 years in favor of Africa? why should Africa look religiously at the world powers as they give their proclamations with confident eyes? Are we selling the future of our children to the same exploitation we have gone through? 

Military people know very well that in every war there are casualties, who will be the casualties with a raise of Africa? Let me shed some light here. The current mode of organizing the world is such unfair that all regions can NEVER be developed at the same time. Duality has to thrive under the current capitalist mode. One region has to fall as another one raises, and this explains the increased fear of US due to the rise China and the increased influence of Russia and their closeness in ideologies. But at a local scale, am sure you may think what the hell does the fall of US has to do with Africa? We are an equal player and its critical to imagine what will be the implication of an Africa rise. Let it be known that an imagination that Europe or US can never fall in their global dominance and power is fallacious.  The fall of United Kingdom as an industrial power and capitalist priest of the 19th century needs not take us to ancient Greek, Ottoman, Roman, Maya empires as good students of history. So if this is possible what needs to be done by Africa? 

Rahm Emmanuel and Winston Churchill once said, do not let a good crisis go to waste. I cannot imagine of an excellent illustration of this point than in the build up and development of the Israel state. Against all odds, brick by brick with great opposition from unhappy neighbors, Israel has managed to build up her nations. Any Jew everywhere acknowledges and pledges allegiance to her/his motherland, (Israel) with undivided love and commitment. This resonating logic is illustrated by W.E.B Du bios in his seminal work souls of a black folk, which establishes the common origin of blacks as Africa. His relocation to Ghana where he peaceably met his death grounds this thoughts. Therefore the solidarity of all people who share common origin and ancestry from Africa is the foundation for the movement. All sons and daughters of Africa everywhere need to wake up from their slumber and agitate for their kindred. As we are today, Africa maybe having a good crisis, with the unwrapping shift in global economic and social crisis and the slowly shifting world global power, but the question is, will we take the opportunity to make the best out of the global crisis. As the world demonizes African leaders such as Muhammad Qaddafi, Robert Mugabe, Museveni, Uhuru Kenyatta in favor of US and France sugar coated leaders what will become of Africa? 

Defining Development

Development may occur due to some deliberate action carried out by single agents or by some authority pre-ordered to achieve improvement, to favorable circumstances in both. Development in its basic definition means an event constituting a new stage in a changing situation or the process of change per se. If not qualified, development is implicitly intended as something positive or desirable (Lorenzo, 2011). Over the years, development has very rarely been considered as a “god-given” condition of socio-economic systems, implying that policy makers at national and international level need to undertake some specific activities or refrain from carrying out some kinds of activities to promote positive changes. However there have been different schools of thoughts relating to the means of achieving development as well as the true definition of positive outcomes or changes as the end to development. Development may be viewed in different aspects. First development may be viewed as a modernization process with emphasize on social change which is required to produce advancements, reform social and political processes to attain the status already attained by other developed states. In this sense then development is subjected to the activities that produce the desired outcomes that conform to some outlined status. Secondly development may be view as a process of attaining distributive social justice with improved access to basic needs for all. Emphasize is on access to primary goods by all. Thirdly development may be viewed as a product of production with emphasize on the means and the mode of production and the endogenous and exogenous factors impacting production processes. This approach to defining development challenges existing modes of international division of labor, categorization of nations into core and periphery and the impacts of the markets on the economies and welfare of developing nations. This approach assumes that concepts of self-reliance, dependence and freedom are often suppressed by the existing relations between developed and developing nations and the agents that reinforce these relations. Fourthly development may be viewed in the context of resource exploitation. Sustainable development recognizes the finite nature of resources and the need to have equality in access to resources between the current and the future generations. Lastly development may be defined in the context of the victims of development. Capability approach to development resonates with theories of justice and equality within the society. 

UNDERSTANDING HARROD-DOMAR LINEAR MODEL OF GROWTH

This model was developed as a solution for developed countries and international financial institutions to play a major role in the reconstruction of countries after the Second World War and the great depression first in Europe and later to the Asian, African and Latin American continents. The model emphasized on savings, investments, economic growth, and capital output. Further this model made use of the prevailing conditions in the 1940s where the war and the great depression had created major unemployment with many countries experiencing labor surplus.

Using this model, economic growth was a subject of savings and investment and therefore international financial institution were able to calculate the amount of capital injection required by developing countries to realize a particular level of growth. Further the model ruled out any prospects of development for developing countries in the absence of developed countries’ support and propagated the idea that borrowing for developing countries was the only way to development and that debt was a good thing.

Summary of the model

-          The model was based on the concept of savings and capital output.

-          It emphasized that labor in developing countries was in surplus but capital was limited and therefore countries had to find ways of enhancing savings to make use of the surplus labor in order to grow their economies

-          This model emerged after the second world due to the following factors

o   Numerous challenges facing developing countries and interest by developed countries to assist

o   The overwhelming surplus labor in developing countries due to the disruption of the wars and the great depression and the limited capital and savings requiring foreign aid and capital support from developed countries meaning developing countries cannot exist without developed countries (dependency)

o   USSR having developed through forced savings and investment provided a justification for the model

o   Marshall plan which entailed support to previously communist countries which provided an opportunity for western countries to micro manage the economies of developing countries

Critique

-       Savings does always translate to economic growth since saving may just be a confounding factor with other myriad of factors determining economic growth just as the political stability of the country. More so some countries such as Thailand recorded some substantial level of growth without any meaningful savings records.

-         The model is too linear and simplistic indicating that savings will translate to capital stock, which translate to investment translating to economic growth and capital output for sustained growth. However other factors such as technological progress now determine the pace of growth far more than savings alone.

-       Since mechanism in developing countries to manage savings are not in place or developed this model may only apply in developed countries only

-        The model does not differentiate between economic growth and economic development, assuming that economic growth will translate to economic development.

-    The model assumes that heavily borrowing will automatically translate to economic growth. however evidence has shown that developing countries characteristics of heavily borrowing end up with run-away debt and do not necessarily develop 

IS TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER REALLY THAT BAD?

Transfer of Technology, knowledge and skills can be defined as the process through which technologies, innovations, skills and knowledge developed in one place or region or country or for a particular purpose is applied and exploited in another place for a similar or other purpose. Through technology transfer, the knowledge, innovations, facilities, or capabilities developed in one place is made available in other places.

Global Warming is the increase of the earth's average surface temperature due to the effect of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxide emissions from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and organic activities etc which trap heat that would otherwise escape from Earth. Global warming results into climate change although global warming itself represents only one aspect of climate change. Climate change refers to any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time. It includes major changes in temperature, precipitation, or wind patterns, among other effects, that occur over several decades or longer.

Currently transfer of technologies, knowledge and skills particularly from developed countries to developing countries occur through a number of different channels or modes. This includes; Trade in goods and services; All exports to different regions from a particular source may bear some potential for transmitting technological information and the movement of people especially workers from enterprises based on the technology rich countries to regions deprived of such technologies. Secondly such transfers may occur through foreign direct investment. As Multinational enterprises, transfer technological information to their subsidiaries in developing countries, some information or knowledge may leak to the host economies. Lastly transfer of technology may occur through direct trading between different regions through formal trading and licensing of such technologies.

Of interest to this paper is the interplays of transfer of technology and global warming therefore the mode of transfer of technologies, knowledge and skills of interest to this paper would be the transfer through foreign direct investments and the legal trading and licensing of technologies to consumer countries or regions. Often technology transfer in these two contexts may occur as a result of either market pull or technology push.  Market pull occurs where Multinational enterprises relocating within developing countries are in need of or demand of better or sophisticated technologies as compared to the host economies to enhance their production. Technology push on the other hand occurs where innovations or inventions are applied by Multinational enterprises to create new markets or consumer needs for their commodities either within developing countries or regions away from their mother countries.    

Economy forms the most important mode of organization of the society today, and economic growth virtually preoccupies every inhabitant of the modern society.  The global economy is currently hugely fueled by fossil fuels with alternative and saves sources of fuel such as wind and solar energy accounting for some negligible percentage of the global energy consumptions and remaining highly unsustainable for the global energy needs. There is a direct relationship between economic growth and global warming. Human activities such as combustion of Fossil Fuels, electricity generation, transportation, and heating, manufacture of cement etc result in the emission of huge quantities of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. This enormous input of CO2 causes the atmospheric levels of CO2 to rise dramatically. The large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere as a result of human activities normally form a thermal blanket on the earth atmosphere, allowing the penetration of long wavelength rays from the sun to the earth surface but preventing the re-radiation of short wavelength rays into the atmosphere thereby trapping energy in the atmosphere and causing it to warm. The continued buildup of greenhouse gases and the trapping of the rays and their energies is causing the earth to warm in unprecedented manner with 1999, 2005, and 2013 been the hottest years recorded since 1850.

As indicated earlier, massive emissions of greenhouse gases form a thermal blanket restricting the penetration into the earth surface and re-radiation away from the earth atmosphere of the sun rays due the change in the wavelengths of the rays.  The magnitudes of emissions have greatly increased at the turn of the industrial revolution due to the numerous industrial activities taking place mainly within the current major developed economies.

The shift in the production sectors by the developed counties mainly from agricultural, to industrial and to service sectors accompanied by the exploitative nature of capitalism economies and the need for cheap labor and raw materials has lead to a major relocation of massive industries from industrialized economies to developing economies. Although to the optimists, the transfer of technology, knowledge and skills will normally give developing countries undue advantage in term of development as compared to the industrialized economies at their earlier stages of development in the late 1800 and at the turn of the 1900 who had to invent most of their technologies. However most of the profits earned through the industrial activities in developing countries by Multinational enterprises are relocated back to their mother countries. Such relocations have been made possible by the accompanying transfer of technologies, knowledge and skills mainly through foreign direct investments as evident by the numerous multinational corporations relocating to Africa. The relocation is further made possible by the available cheap labor and raw materials particularly land and natural resources. Technology, knowledge and skills transferred create an opportunity for massive exploitation of resources, massive production of goods and services, and massive emissions of green house gases. With fewer frontiers remaining uncolonized, and massive competition, the rate of exploitation of natural resource is and will continue to increase with an accompanying increase in carbon dioxide emissions. Destructive technologies from the north to the south will increase the rates of emissions by the developing countries causing the cumulative amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere to increase tremendously.      

The opposite of the coin as discussed earlier maybe rare but still a possibility where technology transfer may play a critical role in reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases by African countries. According to international panel on climate change’s definition of technology transfer; technology transfer refers to a broad set of processes covering the flows of know-how, experience and equipment for mitigating and adapting to climate change amongst different stakeholders such as governments, private sector entities, financial institutions, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and research/education institutions. This however will call for attainment of common goal by all actors globally and the transformation of the current destructive technologies into cleaners and more climate resilient technologies and their transfer to all countries including developing countries. However, underscoring the significant role of the economy in shaping the current global society, the key actors and the predominantly controlled development agendas of the African countries and their poverty status, such a mode of technology transfer in favor of sustainable development through reduction in greenhouse gases emissions where the agenda is championed by developing countries and less African countries who are the receipt of transferred technologies is not discernible.

Transfer of technologies, knowledge and skills are important in the growth of Africa economies but such growth will occur at the expensive of the environment. There are minimal opportunities where such transfers will result in reduction in the emissions of greenhouse gases.

DOES AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH UTILIZATION AS A CHANCE IN AFRICAN?

Over the years, the role of knowledge in the betterment of the society has been an overarching theme. Knowledge can be defined as the capacity for action. The transformation of the prevailing structures of the society through knowledge constitutes the material basis and justification for designating modern society as knowledge societies (Caplain, 1976). Enormous thinkers in the 20^th century including Aristotle Plato, Sir Francis Bacon, Henri Saint-Simon, Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, and Max Weber contributed to the belief that the advancement of civilization was interwoven with the advancements in knowledge and its use (Caplain, 1976). Rich, (1979) notes that, a social contract evolved between the producers of knowledge and the society. Knowledge plays such an instrumental role in contemporary societies that, such societies have come to be known as knowledge societies (Caplain, 1976).

According to Rogers, (1995) knowledge creation and diffusion can be traced back to the European beginnings of social science with Gabriel Tarde’s laws of Imitation and early anthropologists known as the British, German-Austrian diffusionists. Backer, (1994) argues that, the roots of knowledge utilization can be traced from the ancient Greeks.  In America, knowledge dissemination and utilization can be traced back to the 1920’s with studies such as the diffusion of agricultural innovations to farmers and the spreading of new teaching ideas among schools. According to Rich, (1979), the increased funding of knowledge diffusion and utilization by the American government was as a result of recognition by the policy makers that innovation dissemination could contribute to higher rate of economic growth. Further, various institutions especially private institutions were interested in rapidly increasing adoption and extension of their technologies, practices and findings.

The rationale of research is to enlarge frontiers of knowledge and contribute significantly to human development (Oduwaiye, et al 2009). According to Court and Young, (2006) research is an indispensable tool that contributes to improvement in the quality of debates in the society through establishing general principles, concepts and identification of problems based on sound argument to guide the development process. Besides, research is important in the solving of concrete problems by providing concrete solutions.  

Research no matter how innovative it is, will not make a difference in the lives of the target community unless it is disseminated and utilized in an appropriate and timely manner. Dissemination of research is an important component of the research process. Once knowledge has been created, the next logical step in the information transfer process is it’s dissemination to relevant consumers. According to Lovell, (1971) dissemination can be conceptualized as getting the findings or new ideas out into the public domain, mainly through avenues such as publications, professional journals among others. According to Rogers, (1995) dissemination is the process by which an idea or innovation or finding is communicated through certain channels overtime among members of a social system, while utilization is the process that aims at increasing the employment of knowledge to solve problems and improve the quality of life. According to Burns, (2005) research utilization refers to the process of synthesizing and using research findings in order to make an impact on or a change in the existing practices within the society. Utilization of research results to a considerable extent depends on proper dissemination of the findings to the relevant consumers.

Backer, (1994) elaborates the concept of knowledge dissemination and utilization as encompassing the following facets; knowledge transfer and utilization, technology transfer, sociology of knowledge, organizational change, policy development and interpersonal and mass communication. Knowledge utilization cuts across different disciplines and specialties. Marshall and Rossman, (1989) explains that, dissemination of research results should be comprehensive and capable of being interpreted and used by the target consumers. More often, consumers complain of the technical language and analogies used to convey messages by researcher. Therefore dissemination of research results should be guided by the following questions; why should the targeted consumers get the research outcomes? What will they make from the research results? And, how will the research products improve the living standards of the consumers?

According to the African development Bank, (2011) there exists a wide gap between producers and consumers of knowledge; Research can have an enormous impact on development initiatives than it has to date. The effectiveness of translation of research findings to practice has been shrouded in mystery, with researchers as knowledge producers being unable to understand the failure despite clear and convincing academic dissemination avenues. In addition, development practitioners as knowledge consumers bemoan the inability of researchers to make their findings accessible to and digestible by consumers in good time. World Bank, (2010) notes that, most research undertakings don’t begin with identification of key knowledge gaps facing development practitioners, but rather researchers seek questions they can answer with the current methodologies as the basis of their research. Research should be based on a strategic approach that is firmly anchored on key knowledge gaps for development. Existing development gaps should inform the research agenda and not the researcher’s disciplinary background or the favoritism of methodologies.

Over the years, ample research has been undertaken focusing on understanding the institutional based barriers to utilization of research findings. According to Rich, (1979) the breakdown in ‘research - practice path’ may be explained by a number of factors which includes; limited time and money allocated to dissemination of research, limited dissemination channels, researchers lack the language or skills to present their findings to the communities, and besides research consumers must wait until the research findings get published in journals or seminars, which they may or may not access. More often there are numerous delays in publications of research findings with some research institutions reluctant to publish their work. Furthermore, there is massive quantity of data produced through research which makes it difficult for the consumers to stay on top of the latest findings. The prevailing academic culture which appreciates academic based activities more than community involvement which is viewed as done by the ‘so not good enough’ academicians also inhibits research utilization. Often community members view themselves as research subjects who seldom share in the benefit of research proceedings. On the other hand, researchers may intend to share their findings with community members, but the structures of research institutions make it difficult or untenable to do so. The funding institutions further rarely include requirements for dissemination in their call for proposals. In addition, careers of researcher and academicians are based on academically oriented dissemination venues such as peer reviewed publications on journals with little attention on community forums (Caplan, 1979). According to Duarte and Rice, (1992) Cultural differences may heavily impact on the way in which the potential consumers interact with and perceive research results. Such cultural differences may include; family boundaries, importance of religion, meaning of education and work, decision making styles, local beliefs and response to change. These cultural differences can be clustered in relation to the context, space, time, information flow, local norms and rules. Glaser and Taylor, (1971) posits that, culture places a major influence on the individual, collective groupings as well as the interactions between groups. There has been major emphasizes on, inter-group cultural differences and less insight on intra-group cultural differences. For example, considering rural communities in Kenya it would be fallacious to assume that all the community members prefer to access information from friends ignoring the members who prefer social media and other channels.

IFAD, (2012) posits that poverty remains significant in the past decades in Africa, East Asia and Latin America, despite significant progress made in other parts of the world. At least 70 per cent of the world’s very poor people live in the rural areas and a large proportion of these poor and hungry populations are children and young people. The population of the less developed countries is still more rural than urban with some 3.1 billion people or 55 (%) of the total population still living in rural areas. Nevertheless, with better utilization of agricultural research findings to inform development policies and practices, it’s possible to save lives, reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of people in the above regions (Court and Young, 2006). As indicted by ADB, (2011) agriculture supports the livelihoods of over two thirds of the regions’ poor and is the main economic mover in the developing countries. The value of agricultural research can only be measured in terms of its contribution to solutions of the farmer and the overall community. It is not enough to do research, and obtain results; the research results developed must rapidly be transferred to farmers, fields and be adopted.

Improvements in agricultural technology will continue to play a critical role in improving the welfare of rural communities and the general economy of countries especially in African. Given that, economic growth is the best remedy for poverty and that only a handful of countries have managed to attain economic growth without emphasis on agricultural growth, it follows that agriculture is a principal tool in the development of these countries. Cumulatively, agriculture benefits; rural and urban poor through provision of food as well as raw materials for industries, frees foreign currency for the purchase of capital assets, provides markets for industrial sector, reduces poverty through provision of employment and primary food commodities especially to the rural communities. High and sustained growth in agriculture is vital for African countries to accelerate poverty reduction. This is because agriculture has a powerful leverage effect on all the sectors of the economy especially countries within the early stages of development (FARA, 2006).

According to the World Bank, (2010) investments in agricultural research and knowledge generation constitute numerous strategies adopted to promote sustainable and equitable agricultural development in most of the African countries over the years. The focus on agricultural investment has gone through various transformations over the years. In the 1980s, agricultural research focused on strengthening the research supply systems at both the international and national levels. In the 1990s, the focus shifted to improving the links between research, education and the extension services and identification of farmers’ needs to inform the research process. The similarity between the two approaches was that, the link between researchers and research consumers remained linear with research knowledge being generated for extension officers who were expected to transfer new technologies and innovations to the farmers at the rural levels. However, the focus has recently changed with the realization that supply and demand for knowledge is far more complex than envisaged in the linear approaches. Research dissemination approaches involving many stakeholders are currently been appreciated as more effective in speeding the use of research knowledge for income generation by research consumers. The newer approaches emphasize on the totality of the interactions between stakeholders needed to encourage the utilization of research outputs.

Research coupled with appropriate supportive policies and effective dissemination and utilization can immensely contribute to improving the quality of life and ensuring harmonious functioning of the research to practice system. The key parts or structures of the ‘research - practice system’ includes; research undertaking to produce relevant results, supportive facilitative policy frameworks and the research consumers. Each of these units has their own distinct functions which are interdependent and wholly contribute to improved welfare. To ensure research utilization, there is a need to harmonize the functions of the different parts of the system (researchers, policy makers and consumers).
According to FARA, (2006) experiences from across Africa indicate that the effectiveness of agricultural technology generation and utilization depends largely on the relevance and responsiveness to farmer’s needs. It’s currently observed that, the needs of farmers’ do not sufficiently drive the orientation of agricultural research and extension of the findings: a fact that reduces the relevance and impact of agricultural research. Often community members view themselves as research subjects who rarely share in the benefit of research proceedings. In some instances, researchers may intend to share their findings with community members, but the structures of their research institutions make it difficult or untenable. The funding institutions further, rarely include requirements for dissemination in their call for proposals and also the careers of researchers and academicians is based on academically oriented dissemination venues such as; peer reviewed publications or journals with little attention on community forums.   

Africa, her natural resources and under-development

The abundance of natural resources in Africa has been at the heart of many debates, especially in relation to the level of development in the region compared with other parts of the world. Africa is endowed with both a great volume and variety of natural resources. Indeed, the variety of natural resources to be found in Africa is perhaps far greater than on any other continent. It ranks first in chromium, cobalt, diamond, gold and vanadium reserves and production, among others. In spite of this favorable context, most African mineral resource rich countries have so far failed to harness the full potential of the resource boom to spur their economic growth and development. The value of Africa’s natural resources – valued in the trillions of dollars – dwarf other sources of capital such as remittances and aid. From laptops to cell phones, cars to airplanes, all kinds of everyday products are made using minerals from Africa. It is not an exaggeration to say that the world depends on Africa's natural resources. Africa’s natural resources have been the bedrock of the world’s economy and continue to represent a significant development opportunity for the global market.  

Since the colonial period, African economies have either deteriorated or stagnated with detrimental efforts on the Africans.  In comparison to other continents the African economic development progression has been marginal relative to other resource-rich countries across the globe. The history of resource extraction in Africa and in particular during the colonial period and the subsequent governments highly informed by the fading colonial influences is substantially a history of plunder. Too often, African resources have become a burden for the countries that harbor them, a curse rather than a blessing, a blockage to development instead of a source of finance to foster sustainable development. In Africa, raw materials resources frequently go hand in hand with social and military conflicts, internal and international warfare, environmental degradation, evictions and weak or non-functioning state institutions.

The global economy in the manner of transnational raw materials corporations has played significant roles in plundering the economy of Africa. Often with the consent of host governments this corporations have managed to sign favorable agreements which reduce tax obligations and limit the royalties to the state at the same time having local corrupt elites transfer large sums abroad to tax havens and secret accounts. The corporations do not act in isolation; they are part and parcel of wide-ranging attempts to secure the flow of raw materials from Africa to the European Union and to the US.

The key concept in mobilization of resources for development within Africa lies with the shift in the balance in terms of the ownership and exploitation of resources and introduction of fair practices solely influenced by self centered African market policies to ensure the market and in particular the global economy does not take advantage of Africa to fuel its economy. Critique of the modes of accumulation of resources and exploitation for production should be a discipline for all Africa leaders with emphasize on strong African institutions not dependent on the international community which functions solely for the benefit of Africa. Delinking of the Africa economy from the international market is an impossible move and maybe unthinkable in certain quotas but may be the only way, Africa will mobilize its resources adequate enough to spur its stagnant economy. The challenge for the African continent is how to govern and harness the rich pool of natural resources to achieve a broad-based growth. African governments need to take strong action to implement concrete measures to ensure that their countries and their populations benefit from natural resource extraction.

PATRIARCHY, CAPITALISM AND GENDER OPPRESSION

Gender and Development

According to the United Nations Development Programme is denoted by long and healthy lives, been knowledgeable, having access to resources needed for a decent standard of living and to participate in the life of the community.

The food and agricultural organization defines gender as the relations between men and women both perceptual and material. Gender roles are the social definition of men and women and vary from one society to another society. Gender is not determined biologically but rather it’s socially constructed. Social category of gender has been and continues to be the most fundamental way in which distinctions are made among the people. Society itself has an objective existence and it thus strongly influences human behavior.

Gender and development connotes the improvement in the welfare state and the relations between men and women. There is no development where one gender and in particular males are benefiting through exploitation of the other gender. Although societal roles have historically been divided among the males and the females, but based on the rules of natural justice; development should focus on the equal participation of both genders in production resulting in cumulative and quantitative increase in productivity which is accompanied by fair distribution of the gains of production among the two genders.

Gender and exploitation – patriarchy and capitalism

Societies have historically been organized under specific modes such as feudalism, or capitalism. Social change occurs because of structural change. Economic structure itself contains dynamics that push history along. Such changes justify, legitimize and propagated gender disparity over subsequent years. Gender is a development issue especially with the advent of the private ownership of production and the disbandment of the communal lifestyles.

In hunter-gatherer and horticultural societies, there was a sexual division of labor with rigidly defined sets of responsibilities for women and men. Women in pre-class societies were able to combine motherhood and productive labor. In fact there was no strict demarcation between the reproductive and productive spheres. This was so because women were central to production and there were predetermined roles for both sexes in these pre-class societies, therefore systematic inequality between the sexes was non-existent. Furthermore, reproduction and production were not viewed in the context of labor and its commodification concept in the subsequent regimes and in particular capitalism.

As production shifted away from the household, the role of reproduction changed substantially. The shift toward agricultural production sharply increased the productivity of labor. This, in turn, increased the demand for labor with resulting increase in the number of workers and higher surplus. Thus, unlike hunter-gatherer societies, which sought to limit the number of offspring, agricultural societies sought to maximize women’s reproductive potential, so that the family would have more children to help out in the fields. Therefore, at the same time that men were playing an increasingly exclusive role in production, women were required to play a much more central role in reproduction.

The advent of the private property transformed the relations between men and women within the household because it radically changed the political and economic relations in the larger society. According to Engels the new wealth in domesticated animals meant that there was a surplus of goods available for exchange between productive units. With time, production by men specifically for exchange purposes developed, expanded, and came to overshadow the household’s production for use. As production of exchange eclipsed production for use, it changed the nature of the household, the significance of women’s work within it, and consequently women’s position in society.

Patriarchy and capitalism work together to maintain the oppression of women. Capitalism requires a group that controls the means of production as well as a group that is exploited. This basic social relationship is what allows capitalist to create profit. It is in the best interest of both public and private institutions to exploit the labor of women as an inexpensive method of supporting a work force. For the producers, this means higher profits. Patriarchy on the other hand, consists of both men who control the means of production and profit; and women who provide cheap and often free labor. Much of what women do often is done for free for example no wages are paid for the wife’s domestic labor constituting the unpaid labor force in capitalism. Paying women for carrying children and domestic work would significantly reduce profit margins and the capitalist’s ability to accumulate capital. Man’s ability to devote his time entirely to a job or career is dependent upon the woman’s exploitation. When women are allowed in the work force, they tend to be kept in menial positions or given lower wages for the same work as men because of the importance of women’s cheap and free labor to the capitalist system, elite formulate and preach a patriarchic ideology that gives a society a basis for believing in the rightness of women’s primary call to child bearing and domestic labor. Elite men also use their structural and legislatives power to disadvantage women’s fair work force participation. The greater the workforce participation of women particularly in high paying jobs, the less the structure of inequality is able to be maintained.

Resources are critical for development and the people controlling the allocation and utilization of resources control to a bigger extend the output of production. According to Engels (1884), the shift from feudalism to private ownership of land had a huge effect on the status of women. In a private ownership system, individuals who do not own land or other means of production are in a situation that Engels compares to enslavement - they must work for the owners of the land in order to be able to live within the system of private ownership. Much of land as the chief factor of production in Africa is under the control of men thereby disadvantaging women.  

Women's subordination is not a result of her biological disposition but of social relations, and man’s efforts to achieve their demands for control of women's labor and sexual faculties. Women's subordination is a function of class oppression, maintained because it serves the interests of capital and the ruling class; it divides men against women, privileges working class men relatively within the capitalist system in order to secure their support; and legitimates the capitalist class's refusal to pay for the domestic labor assigned, unpaid, to women. Every structural system is sustained through legitimization and in the context of women, oppression has been legitimized though cultural practices and laws in the modern society and institutionalized in the nuclear family. 

Measured in the dimensions of improving the welfare state of the people through sustained quantitative growth in the economy, development should result in better working conditions and fair distribution of the gains of production to both genders. The concept of gender disparity has found its way into Africa through the ‘exporting of capitalism’ and leveraging on the existing ‘innocent’ African socio-cultural customs. According to Engels describe the bourgeois sees in his wife a mere instrument of production and this is a fairly accurate portrayal of how capitalism, often through colonialism, has managed to successfully exploit the female workforce. Through colonialism, capitalism has managed to spread to indigenous and previously autonomous societies and inflict a capitalist mode of production upon the men and women living in these regions. Before the arrival of the colonialists and subsequent arrival of capitalism, women and men often had set traditional roles to play in society, but the significant economic change has led in many circumstances to a dramatic shift in gender roles and relations. While men are often expected to contribute more significantly to the economy at large, women have been given the responsibility to directly provide for the family, thereby contributing both financially and domestically. Women in these societies’ indigenous societies begin to be seen as a source labor for production. Besides women labor is more appealing to capitalism because; the labor is cheaper to employ compared to the male counterparts, women have greater patient when it comes to tedious work, work under poor working conditions and are less likely to agitate for unionization.

Further capitalism has innovated ways of increasing accessibility to women labor through adoption of various measures including; inadequate childcare and increased cost of living, demanding domestic and financial responsibilities, dependency on employers and husbands. These factors contribute to the vulnerability of women putting them in a situation where they must provide labor to the market. Technology on the other hand has advanced so that the time spent on household chores, like laundry, has been reduced, fast-food restaurants have made it possible for women to spend less time cooking, public schooling means that the time women spend on childrearing is greatly reduced from the days when they barely left the home

Conclusion

Since the gains of development are not a preserve of men and the capitalist in the society, for the realization of equality in the achievement of development goals; radical restructuring of the current capitalist economy and patriarchal systems, in which participation of women in production is highly regulated and much of women's labor is uncompensated must be enforced in the society and particularly in Africa to liberate women and have them equally contributing to the development process and fairly sharing in the gains of production in order to improve their living standards both at the work place and also in the nuclear family. 

PROPOSAL WRITING - NOTES ADOPTED FROM foundationcenter.org

Resource mobilization is grounded in the conviction that a partnership should develop between the nonprofit and the donor. When you spend a great deal of your time seeking money, it is hard to remember that it can also be difficult to give money away. In fact, the money contributed by a donor has no value until they are attached to solid programs in the nonprofit sector. The nonprofits have the ideas and the capacity to solve problems, but no money with which to implement them. The donor has the financial resources but not the other resources needed to create programs. If the two are infused together effectively, the result is a dynamic collaboration.

Types of proposal

1.      Solicited proposal

2.      Unsolicited proposal

Gathering Background Information

The first thing you will need to do in writing your proposal is to gather the documentation for it. You will require background documentation in three areas: concept, program, and expenses.

This data-gathering process makes the actual writing much easier. And by involving other stakeholders in the process, it also helps key people within your agency seriously consider the project's value to the organization. 

·         Concept
It is important that you have a good sense of how the project fits with the philosophy and mission of your organization. The need that the proposal is addressing must also be documented. These concepts must be well-articulated in the proposal. Funders want to know that a project reinforces the overall direction of an organization, and they may need to be convinced that the case for the project is compelling. You should collect background data on your organization and on the need to be addressed so that your arguments are well-documented. 

·         Program
Here is a check list of the program information you require:

• The nature of the project and how it will be conducted;
• The timetable for the project;
• The anticipated outcomes and how best to evaluate the results; and
• Staffing and volunteer needs, including deployment of existing staff and new hires.

·         Expenses
You will not be able to pin down all the expenses associated with the project until the program details and timing have been worked out. Thus, the main financial data gathering takes place after the narrative part of the master proposal has been written. However, at this stage you do need to sketch out the broad outlines of the budget to be sure that the costs are in reasonable proportion to the outcomes you anticipate. If it appears that the costs will be prohibitive, even with a foundation grant, you should then scale back your plans or adjust them to remove the least cost-effective expenditures. 

Components of proposal writing

Executive summary

Umbrella statement of your case and summary of the entire proposal

Statement of the need – why this project is necessary

Establishes that your nonprofit understands the problems and therefore can reasonably address them You want the need section to be succinct, yet persuasive. Like a good debater, you must assemble all the arguments. Then present them in a logical sequence that will readily convince the reader of their importance.

Project description; this section entails

·         Objectives

Objectives are the measurable outcomes of the program. They define your methods. Your objectives must be tangible, specific, concrete, measurable, and achievable in a specified time period.

·         Methods

By means of the objectives, you have explained to the funder what will be achieved by the project. The methods section describes the specific activities that will take place to achieve the objectives. It might be helpful to divide our discussion of methods into the following: how, when, and why.

How: This is the detailed description of what will occur from the time the project begins until it is completed. Your methods should match the previously stated objectives. 

When: The methods section should present the order and timing for the tasks. It might make sense to provide a timetable so that the grants decision-maker does not have to map out the sequencing on his or her own. The timetable tells the reader "when" and provides another summary of the project that supports the rest of the methods section. 

Why: You may need to defend your chosen methods, especially if they are new or unorthodox. Why will the planned work most effectively lead to the outcomes you anticipate? You can answer this question in a number of ways, including using expert testimony and examples of other projects that work.
The methods section enables the reader to visualize the implementation of the project. It should convince the reader that your agency knows what it is doing, thereby establishing its credibility.

·         Staffing/administration

In describing the methods, you will have mentioned staffing for the project. You now need to devote a few sentences to discussing the number of staff, their qualifications, and specific assignments. Details about individual staff members involved in the project can be included either as part of this section or in the appendix, depending on the length and importance of this information.

·         Evaluation

An evaluation plan should not be considered only after the project is over; it should be built into the project. Including an evaluation plan in your proposal indicates that you take your objectives seriously and want to know how well you have achieved them. Evaluation is also a sound management tool. Like strategic planning, it helps a nonprofit refine and improves its program. An evaluation can often be the best means for others to learn from your experience in conducting the project. 

There are several types of formal evaluation. One measures the product; others analyze the process and/or strategies you've adopted. Most seek to determine the impact on the audiences you serve and the measurable outcomes of your grant project. Either or both might be appropriate to your project. The approach you choose will depend on the nature of the project and its objectives. Whatever form your evaluation takes, you will need to describe the manner in which evaluation information will be collected and how the data will be analyzed. 

Most sound evaluation plans include both qualitative and quantitative data. You should also present your plan for how the evaluation and its results will be reported and the audience to which it will be directed. For example, it might be used internally or be shared with the funder, or it might deserve a wider audience. A funder might even have an opinion about the scope of this dissemination. Many funders also have suggestions about who should conduct the evaluation, whether it be your own program staff or outside consultants. Some funders allow for the inclusion of the cost of evaluation as part of the project budget. 

·         Sustainability

A clear message from grant makers today is that grant seekers will be expected to demonstrate in very concrete ways the long-term financial viability of the project to be funded and of the nonprofit organization itself. 

It stands to reason that most grant makers will not want to take on a permanent funding commitment to a particular agency. Rather, funders will want you to prove either that your project is finite (with start-up and ending dates); or that it is capacity-building (that it will contribute to the future self-sufficiency of your agency and/or enable it to expand services that might generate revenue); or that it will make your organization attractive to other funders in the future. Evidence of fiscal sustainability is a highly sought-after characteristic of the successful grant proposal.

It behooves you to be very specific about current and projected funding streams, both earned income and fundraising, and about the base of financial support for your nonprofit. Here is an area where it is important to have backup figures and prognostications at the ready, in case a prospective funder asks for these, even though you are unlikely to include this information in the actual grant proposal. Some grant makers, of course, will want to know who else will be receiving a copy of this same proposal. You should not be shy about sharing this information with the funder.

Budget

The budget for your proposal may be as simple as a one-page statement of projected revenue and expenses. Or your proposal may require a more complex presentation, perhaps including a page on projected support and notes explaining various items of expense or of revenue.

As you prepare to assemble the budget, go back through the proposal narrative and make a list of all personnel and non-personnel items related to the operation of the project. Be sure that you list not only new costs that will be incurred if the project is funded but also any ongoing expenses for items that will be allocated to the project. Then get the relevant costs from the person in your agency who is responsible for keeping the books.

Organization/community information
Normally a resume of your nonprofit organization should come at the end of your proposal. Your natural inclination may be to put this information up front in the document. But it is usually better to sell the need for your project and then your agency's ability to carry it out. 

It is not necessary to overwhelm the reader with facts about your organization. This information can be conveyed easily by attaching a brochure or other prepared statement. In two pages or less, tell the reader when your nonprofit came into existence; state its mission, being certain to demonstrate how the subject of the proposal fits within or extends that mission; and describe the organization's structure, programs, leadership, and special expertise.

Discuss the size of the board, how board members are recruited, and their level of participation. Give the reader a feel for the makeup of the board. (You should include the full board list in an appendix.) If your agency is composed of volunteers or has an active volunteer group, describe the function that the volunteers perform. Provide details on the staff, including the numbers of full and part-time staff, and their levels of expertise.

Describe the kinds of activities in which your staff engage. Explain briefly the assistance you provide. Describe the audience you serve, any special or unusual needs they face, and why they rely on your agency. Cite the number of people who are reached through your programs.

Letter Proposal

Many funders today state that they prefer a brief letter proposal; others require that you complete an application form. In any case, you will want to refer to the basic proposal components as provided here to be sure that you have not omitted an element that will support your case. Sometimes the scale of the project might suggest a small-scale letter format proposal, or the type of request might not require all of the proposal components or the components in the sequence recommended here. The guidelines and policies of individual funders will be your ultimate guide.

What are the elements of a letter request? For the most part, they should follow the format of a full proposal, except with regard to length. The letter should be no more than three pages. You will need to call upon your writing skills because it can be very hard to get all of the necessary details into a concise, well-articulated letter.

Here are the components of a good letter proposal:

·         Ask for the gift: The letter should begin with a reference to your prior contact with the funder, if any. State why you are writing and how much funding is required from the particular foundation.

·         Describe the need: In a very abbreviated manner, tell the funder why there is a need for this project, piece of equipment, etc.

·         Explain what you will do: Just as you would in a fuller proposal, provide enough detail to pique the funder's interest. Describe precisely what will take place as a result of the grant.

·         Provide agency data: Help the funder know a bit more about your organization by including your mission statement, brief description of programs offered, number of people served, and staff, volunteer, and board data, if appropriate.

·         Include appropriate budget data: Even a letter request may have a budget that is a half-page long. Decide if this information should be incorporated into the letter or in a separate attachment. Whichever course you choose, be sure to indicate the total cost of the project. Discuss future funding only if the absence of this information will raise questions.

·         Close: As with the longer proposal, a letter proposal needs a strong concluding statement. Offer to provide more details or meet with the funder.

·         Attach any additional information required: The funder may need much of the same information to back up a small request as a large one: a board list, a copy of your IRS determination letter, financial documentation, and brief resumes of key staff.

Conclusion

Every proposal should have a concluding paragraph or two. This is a good place to call attention to the future, after the grant is completed. If appropriate, you should outline some of the follow-up activities that might be undertaken to begin to prepare your funder for your next request. Alternatively, you should state how the project might carry on without further grant support.
This section is also the place to make a final appeal for your project. Briefly reiterate what your nonprofit wants to do and why it is important. Underscore why your agency needs funding to accomplish it. Don't be afraid at this stage to use a bit of emotion to solidify your case.

What Happens Next?

Submitting your proposal is nowhere near the end of your involvement in the grant seeking process. Grant review procedures vary widely, and the decision-making process can take anywhere from a few weeks to six months or more. During the review process, the funder may ask for additional information either directly from you or from outside consultants or professional references. Invariably, this is a difficult time for the grant seeker. You need to be patient but persistent. Some grant makers outline their review procedures in annual reports or application guidelines. If you are unclear about the process, don't hesitate to ask.

If your hard work results in a grant, take a few moments to acknowledge the funder's support with a letter of thanks. You also need to find out whether the funder has specific forms, procedures, and deadlines for reporting on the progress of your project. Clarifying your responsibilities as a grantee at the outset, particularly with respect to financial reporting, will prevent misunderstandings and more serious problems later.

Nor is rejection necessarily the end of the process. If you're unsure why your proposal was turned down, ask. Did the funder need additional information? Would they be interested in considering the proposal at a future date? Now might also be the time to begin cultivation of a prospective funder. Put them on your mailing list so that they can become further acquainted with your organization. Remember, there's always next year.